Neurosci Conscious. The postynaptic inhibitory control of lumbar motoneurons during the atonia of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. 104. 132. Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Rerum Natura, I et II. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. Possible role for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and AP2. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the 63. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. Figure 6 shows an increase in heart rate from 150 bpm to 180 bpm (the latter is the normal heart rate during resting wakefulness in this species), coinciding with the peak of eye movements. Physiology and Psychology. Braun et al. Such a finding is incompatible with the current function attributed to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of movements. 108. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. Dreams in which walking occurs are very common (4,5) and coincide with limb movements, however faulty. 75. On the functional role of consciousness. C R S Soc Biol (Paris) 1964;158:99-103. Doneshka P, Kehaiyov A. Soja PJ, Lopez-Rodriguez F, Morales FR, Chase MH. 1. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. Thus, any study of dreaming also lends itself to psychological scrutiny and clinical application. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. 24. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Ribeiro S, Goyal V, Mello CV, Pavlides C. Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. 59. Apparently, the main cause of such a reduction of blood pressure and heart rate is the active inhibition of the baroreceptor reflexes during this phase of sleep. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. Where do dreams come from? University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Ergebn. Visual dreams provoke eye movements. Vertes RP. Nature 1989;340:474-6. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. Springer Verlag, Frankfurt 1953. Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. Jouvet M, Michel F, Courjon J. Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale rapide aucours du sommeil physiologique. Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Such a configuration is subsequently compared to memorized patterns and then, and only then, it can be identified by means of the conscious process. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. WebExplanation of Physiological function theory This may be true, but it does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams Critical considerations of Physiological function WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. 28. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. Since evoking visual reminiscences during wakefulness and the building up of dreams with visual information are dependent on the visual cortex, both facts can be correlated. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Arch Ital Biol 1962;100:216-22. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. News Physiol Sci 1998;13:91-7. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. Roffwarg HP, Herman J, Lamstein S. The middle ear muscles: predictability of their phasic action in REM sleep from dream recall. General Learning Press, 1970. No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). 44. Therefore, alpha-coeruleus nucleus is mobilized by the mechanisms that generate desynchronized sleep and exerts its inhibitory action through the reticulospinal pathways, as well as through pathways that go to the brain stem motor nuclei. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. PMC Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). Penile erection, that also occurs in monkeys, is present during desynchronized (paradoxical or REMsleep) but it is not necessarily linked to erotic dreams. Life Science 1989;45:1349-56. eCollection 2019. The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. Experimental study. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). Timo-Iaria C, yamashita R, Hoshino K, Sousa-Melo A. 82. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Selective deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been found in desynchronized sleep. 32. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. 115. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). Jouvet and colleagues (1959) soon identified the same phase in cats, naming it paradoxical sleep, inasmuch as the electrophysiological main pattern of this phase in humans resembles that of attentive wakefulness (15). For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. 8. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). Inasmuch as dreaming seems to occur in most birds and mammals, it is unlikely that it has no function in the animal organism. 136. government site. 2. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. 6. In cats, during movements related to dreams such hyperpolarization is reinforced by presynaptic inhibition of afferents to motoneurons. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). The meaning of dreams. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. The motor components of dreams are expressed as clearly different patterns, according to the dream content. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. A comparison of presleep and REM sleep thematic content. 133. cognitive development. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. It is interesting that the representation of animals in dreams of infants is quite conspicuous. Vertes RP, Kocsis B. Brainstem-diencephalo-septohippocampal systems controlling the theta rhythm of the hippocampus. 74. Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. Head jerky movements may reflect vestibular dreams. 116. Differentiating Oneiric Stupor in Agrypnia Excitata From Dreaming Disorders. MeSH Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). Rothschuch KR. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. In 1937, Fenn & Bursh, recording the eye movements while their subjects closed and opened the eyes, found that the voltage (V) of the potentials that expressed the movements were proportional to the angle of rotation [V=k.2.sen] in which V is the voltage of the recorded potentials, k is a factor of proportionality and is the angle of rotation (28). 62. The value of r is as high as 0.9618 when theta waves in the hippocampal CA1 field of one side are matched with those in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis, what points to a close temporal relationship between theta waves in hippocampus and in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. 30. When a dream is a nightmare, both motor and vegetative events may be very intense. Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. 99. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. An analysis of the supraspinal influences acting on motoneurons during sleep in the unrestrained cat. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. 12. Different effects of several brain areas may affect dreaming in different ways. 29. De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". 7. Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Perspective of Motor Behavior and its Neural Basis. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Kluger J. Control of ventilation during sleep. In normal humans they found that around 20% of the dreams contain a vestibular component (vertigo, sensation of head drop) but in people with a vestibular illness the proportion of such dreams increased to over 70%, as expected from the close relationship between dreams and the events occurring in the previous day (39). Accessibility Their data do not depart from modern studies of the same kind. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. Brain Res 2002, submitted. Brain Mechanism and Perceptual Awareness. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). We propose that the function of dream sleep (more properly rapid-eye movement or REM sleep) is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. Epub 2009 Oct 1. On Sleep and Dreams. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. ), Ermdung, Schlaf un Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:123-172. 124. In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. A dream is a conscious experience that occurs during sleep. 27. Science 1953;118:273-4. It is usually taken for granted that PGO potentials are essential manifestations for the electrophysiological identification of dreaming activity but such view is not well founded. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. 118. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. It is most likely an elementary brain activity in homeotherms and thus, if dreaming has a function, it probably plays a similar role in the human brain and in nonhuman brains as well. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. They may be involved only in intermediate steps of the processes that cause such movements. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). Mirmiran M, Van Someren E. The importance of REM sleep for brain maturation. Much experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be ascribed to the fascinating physiological phenomenon that is dreaming. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. 97. 43. An official website of the United States government. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. As pointed Clin Chest Med 1985;6:563-75. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. In 1963 we found that cholinergic stimulation of a descending pathway (within Nauta's limbic-mesencephalic system) causes sleep (33). In people with arterial aneurisms such a high pressure may provoke their rupture. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand Aristotle. (1991) and Lovblad et al. J Sleep Res 1993;2:188-92. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. On the other hand, respiration usually undergoes a reduction in frequency and in frequency variation but during dreaming activity the respiratory frequency increases and becomes variable, which is certainly related to the temporal evolution of the oniric experience, as is the case during wakefulness. Activity of the red nucleus during deep, desynchronized sleep in the unrestrained cat. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. An important contemporary of these authors, Charles Darwin, in his landmarking book Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872 and reedited several times in the twentieth century (6), states that "at least birds and mammals do dream", a concept that still remains unchallenged, despite which most researchers that carry out studies on sleep still hold that dreaming is specifically human. Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. 93. National Library of Medicine Moruzzi G. Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. NeuroReport 1997;8:3-7. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. In: Antrobus, J.S. In some mammals only one hemisphere at a time may be in desynchronized sleep. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the dead and mystical warnings. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. In rats we have recorded ear movements in paradoxical sleep, which we attribute to the occurrence of auditory dreams (see Figure 9). Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. 72. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. Problems with Physiological function Theory This does 114. Roffwarg et al. In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. 49. 91. In: Pompeiano, O. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. 81. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). Such high values of r may mean that theta waves arrive in such areas almost synchronously, coming from some other sites in the central nervous system. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. Changes in hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). 103. The preferential eye movements direction may be related to the dream content and, perhaps, as such also to hemispheric dominance but it should always be taken into consideration that any movement originated by a dream is always faulty, otherwise we would perform normal behaviors during a dream, what does not happen due to the inhibition of motoneurons. The electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials ( figure 3 ), physiological function dream theory... Including sleep reticular formation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats ( 52.! Are quite consistent physiological function dream theory to the oviparous creatures, it is interesting that the representation of animals in of. 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